Client control over the vendor has been identified as a critical factor in successfully managing information technology outsourcing relationships. Though prior studies have suggested that "how much" control is exercised has significant ramifications for individuals and firms, relatively few studies have operationalized and studied this important concept. In this study, we define the amount of formal control as the variety of mechanisms used by a client to exercise control over a vendor and the extent to which the mechanisms are used. We use literature on transaction cost economics and organizational control to build a model of the antecedents of the amount of formal control. The study uses data from 138 client-vendor matched pairs working in eight large, long-term, ongoing outsourcing arrangements to test specific hypotheses. The results suggest that clients who have technical or relationship management knowledge, or have high levels of trust in their vendors, use formal control mechanisms to a lesser extent. On the other hand, task uncertainty was found to be positively associated with the amount of formal control, and the degree of core competency involved in the outsourced activity was not found to be related to the amount of formal control. These results are discussed, and implications for research and practice are drawn.
This study synthesizes the research findings of 82 empirical studies on user participation in information systems development (ISD). Various ISD outcomes are addressed using a classification scheme involving two broad categories--attitudinal/behavioral outcomes and productivity outcomes. The results demonstrate that user participation is minimally-to-moderately beneficial to ISD; its effects are comparatively stronger on attitudinal/behavioral outcomes than on productivity outcomes. This attitudinal/behavioral impact may largely be the result of the emphasis that has been placed on user participation by academics and consultants. The results of this analysis are compared to those of a meta-analysis in the broader management context of participation. The results are similar in terms of attitudinal outcomes, but different, and lesser, in terms of productivity outcomes. Since the current status of research in the broad area of participation is that the effects of participation are considered to be problematic, that status and the results of this study suggest that user participation alone may not be sufficient to achieve significantly improved ISD outcomes, and that different strategies should be employed based on the specific goals of ISD projects. If system acceptance is the ultimate goal, user participation should be designed to induce more psychological involvement among potential users. If productivity benefits are the focus, user participation should be designed to provide developers the needed domain knowledge. In sum, user participation should be treated as one of a number of means for ISD projects to be more successful.
In software development, team-based work structures are commonly used to accomplish complex projects. Software project teams must be able to utilize the expertise and knowledge of participants without overwhelming individual members. To efficiently leverage individuals' knowledge and expertise, software project teams develop team cognition structures that facilitate their knowledge activities. This study focuses on the emergence and evolution of team cognition in software project teams, and examines how communication activity and team diversity impact the formation of these structures. A longitudinal study was conducted of 51 database development teams. The results suggest that some forms of communication and team diversity affect the formation of team cognition. Frequency of meetings and phone calls were positively related to the formation of team cognition, while e-mail use had no effect. Gender diversity had a strong and positive effect on the development of team cognition and the effect remained stable over time. Implications for the practical potential and limitations of purposive team construction as a strategy for improving software development team performance are discussed.
This study develops an instrument that may be used as an information systems (IS) functional scorecard (lSFS). It is based on a theoretical input--output model of the IS function's role in supporting business process effectiveness and organizational performance. The research model consists of three system output dimensions--systems performance, information effectiveness, and service performance. The "updated paradigm" for instrument development was followed to develop and validate the ISFS instrument. Construct validation of the instrument was conducted using responses from 346 systems users in 149 organizations by a combination of exploratory factor analysis and structural equation modeling using LISREL. The process resulted in an instrument that measures 18 unidimensional factors within the three ISFS dimensions. Moreover, a sample of 120 matched-paired responses of separate CIO and user responses was used for nomological validation. The results showed that the ISFS measure reflected by the instrument was positively related to improvements in business processes effectiveness and organizational performance. Consequently, the instrument may be used for assessing IS performance, for guiding information technology investment and sourcing decisions, and as a basis for further research and instrument development.
Enterprise resource planning (ERP) systems and other complex information systems represent critical organizational resources. For such systems, firms typically use consultants to aid in the implementation process. Client firms expect consultants to transfer their implementation knowledge to their employees so that they can contribute to successful implementations and learn to maintain the systems independent of the consultants. This study examines the antecedents of knowledge transfer in the context of such an interfirm complex information systems implementation environment. Drawing from the knowledge transfer, information systems, and communication literatures, an integrated theoretical model is developed that posits that knowledge transfer is influenced by knowledge-related, motivational, and communication-related factors. Data were collected from consultant-and-client matched-pair samples from 96 ERP implementation projects. Unlike most prior studies, a behavioral measure of knowledge transfer that incorporates the application of knowledge was used. The analysis suggests that all three groups of factors influence knowledge transfer, and provides support for 9 of the 13 hypotheses. The analysis also confirms two mediating relationships. These results (1) adapt prior research, primarily done in non-IS contexts, to the ERP implementation context, (2) enhance prior findings by confirming the significance of an antecedent that has previously shown mixed results, and (3) incorporate new IS-related constructs and measures in developing an integrated model that should be broadly applicable to the interfirm IS implementation context and other IS situations. Managerial and research implications are discussed.
The objective of this study is to aid our understanding of the organization of information systems in organizations whose activities cross national boundaries. The increasing globalization of business has led firms to seek new, and more appropriate, organizational structures, processes, and cultures. This has required the establishment of appropriate information technology platforms to coordinate business processes and to provide coalition mechanisms. This study is based on five important dimensions of transnational strategy--the configuration of value chain activities, the coordination of value chain activities, centralization, strategic alliances, and market integration--that define a comprehensive taxonomy of transnational strategy. A basic proposition is that a firm's transnational strategy will be reflected in the design of its information systems. To address this proposition, a two-stage questionnaire study was conducted. Respondents included 150 multinational corporations from 20 countries and 25 industries. The five dimensions of transnational strategy were operationalized, and the analysis established the validity of a taxonomy that is better suited to the study of systems-related issues in MNCs. This taxonomy was used to test hypotheses related to the organization of transnational systems. These hypotheses were stated in terms of IS organizational, strategic, architectural, and personnel dimensions. The results of the study support the proposition that the organizational characteristics of centralization, dispersal, and coordination are differentially reflected in the IT configurations of various kinds of MNCs. In a centrally coordinated business structure, IT is also globally centralized. In addition, local autonomy was shown to affect the deployment of IT in global firms.
One of the key elements of strategic planning for information systems (IS) is the integration of information systems planning (ISP) with business planning (BP). This integration enables IS to support business strategies more effectively. Although this issue has received significant attention in recent years, empirical research focusing specifically on BP-ISP integration is still relatively sparse. This research extends existing results by examining the evolution of BP-ISP integration and the contingency variables that may influence BP-ISP integration. The results confirmed the existence of an evolutionary pattern that can be defined in terms of movement through four types of BP-ISP integration: administrative integration to sequential integration to reciprocal integration to full integration. Only a few firms indicated that they had reached full integration. Bypassed phases and reverse evolution, though observed, were uncommon. Among the contingency variables, the business competence of the IS executive appeared to be a key factor in influencing the extent of integration.
A field survey was conducted to determine key organizational factors that facilitate and/or inhibit the development of strategic applications of information technology (IT) in business firms. A comprehensive list of potential facilitators and inhibitors for the strategic use of information technology was derived from past research and used as the basis for collecting data from 121 firms. These data were factor-analyzed to determine the key underlying dimensions of facilitators and inhibitors. On the basis of the resulting seven dimensions, stepwise discriminant analysis was used to compare companies that have used IT applications for strategic purposes and companies that have not done so. The results suggest that innovative needs, competitive position, environment, economies of scale, and top management guidance are the most important facilitators, while the lack of IT drivers, the lack of economies of scale, and the lack of innovative needs are the most important inhibitors.
The article presents information on a study, which developed a model that associates the quality and effectiveness of information systems (IS) planning. IS planning has gained considerable interest among researchers and practitioners in recent years because of the large investments that firms have made in IS and the increasingly strategic nature of the impact of information systems on organizational performance. The model is validated using data collected from a field survey of 249 senior IS executives. Canonical correlation analysis is used to test the research hypotheses and validate the model. The results of the study indicate that the two planning dimensions respectively reflecting the "means" and "ends" of IS planning are equally important. The results also indicate that planning resources, the intended strategic impact of IS on future business operations, the quality of facilitation mechanisms, the quality of implementation mechanisms, and the quality of strategic business planning are significantly associated with the quality and effectiveness of IS planning.
In a cross-sectional survey of 114 information centers, it was found that support needed by end-users varied with their computing sophistication and the maturity of the information center. However, information centers did not take into account differences among users in designing support services, and provided all users with the same amount of support. For most users, the support provided was far less than the support needed, but end-user satisfaction was higher when more support needs were fulfilled. The implication of these results is that information centers are not making the requisite effort to identify and fulfill the support needs of their end-users.
Research in the information systems (IS) field indicates that organizations have different roles for IS in their operations and that various aspects of strategic IS planning will vary depending on the IS role. This study empirically evaluates the differences in planning, organizational support, and performance characteristics of IS planning among organizations with different roles for IS. An operationalization of the "role of IS" is developed on the basis of the notion of a "strategic grid." The study also evaluates the relationship between various performance measures and the "fit" between the IS planning process and the role of IS in the organization.The data for the study were collected from a field survey of 249 firms. The results of the data analyses indicate that there are significant differences in planning, organizational support, and performance characteristics of IS planning among organizations with different roles for IS. The planning and support characteristics generally match the predictions implicit in the strategic grid, thereby partially validating it. Significant relationships exist between two of the performance measures, planning effectiveness and IS's contribution to organizational performance, and the "fit" between the role of IS and the quality of the planning process.
The user-analyst liaison function in system development was studied in thirty-eight large firms using a structured interviewing process. The study revealed that the most prevalent form of liaison is still the traditional systems representative and that the liaison function is generally performed much less formally than the informations system (IS) literature would suggest. However, a trend toward greater formalism was detected. Other aspects of the liaison function, such as perceptions of the role, relevant career paths, and attitudes toward the function were also studied.
The concept of creating and considering alternative designs in the system development process is integral to design methodology in many fields. In MIS the idea is little implemented despite the existence of some techniques that facilitate the consideration of alternative designs. Some of these techniques are reviewed and evaluated in terms of their utility in MIS.